Eunuchs in the Byzantine empire
Eunuchs played a significant and distinctive role in Byzantine society, serving in various administrative, military, and ecclesiastical capacities. Their unique status, neither fully male in a traditional sense nor female, allowed them to occupy roles that were inaccessible to other men, particularly in environments where trust and loyalty to the emperor or church were paramount.
Origins and social role of Byzantine Eunuchs.
Legislation originally prohibited castration, although Leo VI mitigated the punischment imposed for performing this surgery. Despite this prohibition, the operation was often performed on both children and adults, including members of the aristocracy, while boys from enslaved populations or captured foreigners could also be castrated. Some eunuchs were also imported from the Caucasus, the caliphate and Slavic countries. One reason to perform such an operation—which occasionally resulted in the death of the subject—was the higher prices that slaves could fetch. At certain times, a 10-year-old child on the slave market of Constantinople was worth 10 nomismata, while a castrated one was worth 30. An adult male was worth 20 nomismata, while an adult eunuch was worth 50.
Eunuchs were often employed in the imperial court, monasteries, and high-ranking administrative roles due to their perceived loyalty and inability to establish independent dynasties. As a result, the practice continued despite legal restrictions, and the legislation was not always enforced. Some members of the imperial family were even castrated, such as Basil I’s son, Constantine, who was castrated and later became a patriarch. Another example is Romanos IV Diogenes, whose sons were castrated to eliminate any dynastic threats. More modest families, hoping for the promising career paths available to eunuchs, did not hesitate to castrate their own children. Lastly, like blinding, castration was also a punishment frequently administered to rebels.
Roles of the Eunuchs in the Byzantine Empire.
Eunuchs occupied a wide variety of roles in Byzantine society, particularly within the imperial court. Rare during the time of Constantine I, eunuchs gained more importance during the reign of Constantine II, alongside the growth of the bureaucratic system. Emperor Julian’s attempt to restrict their role failed, and they retained important positions through the 11th century. However, the Komnenian dynasty pushed them out of the highest posts as aristocratic ideology, emphasizing masculinity, became dominant. Eunuchs had become rare by the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the imperial Court.
Eunuchs were prominent figures in the bureaucraty and in the imperial palace. A distinct hierarchy of titles and ranks were reserved to them, parallel to those of the “bearded ones”. They could hold almost all public offices – except the imperial title. Some eunuchs rose to powerful positions, managing finances or acting as key advisors to the emperor.
Two notable examples are Basil Lekapenos and Joseph Bringas, who both effectively served as regents during the reigns of several emperors. Under Empress Irene in the 9th century, eunuchs Aetius and Staurakios also wielded significant power. In the 11th century, John the Orphanotrophos held considerable power and may have even coveted imperial power for his family.
In the military.
While eunuchs were generally excluded from active combat roles, they often held logistical or administrative positions within the military. A few eunuchs rose to command armies, relying on their strategic acumen rather than physical prowess. Byzantine emperors sometimes entrusted eunuchs with military power, as their inability to establish a dynasty made them less of a threat to the ruling family.
The most famous example is Narses, a renowned general under Emperor Justinian I, who played a key role in the reconquest of Italy. His decisive victory against the Ostrogoths at the Battle of Taginae in 552 was instrumental in reasserting Byzantine control over the region. Under Empress Irene (797-802), Staurakios was honored with a triumph for his victories over the Slavs.
In the church.
Eunuchs also played a significant role in the Byzantine Church, where their unique status often allowed them to rise to high-ranking ecclesiastical positions. As celibacy was a requirement for certain clerical roles, eunuchs were particularly well-suited for such positions. They were seen as individuals who could dedicate their lives entirely to the service of God, free from familial obligations – which was not always true – or the potential for scandal. This perception often gave eunuchs an advantage in ecclesiastical hierarchies, enabling them to gain influence within the Church.
Byzantine history includes many examples of brilliant ecclesiastical careers of eunuchs in the church. Among them is Germanos I, who was castrated in 669 when his father was executed but was elected bishop of Kyzikos around 705 and later became patriarch in 715. Another example is Theophylact of Constantinople, son of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos, who served as patriarch between 933 and 956, or Ignatios of Constantinople, the son of Emperor Michael I Rangabe. After being castrated, Ignatios became a monk following his father’s abdication and eventually rose to become Patriarch of Constantinople, serving two non-consecutive terms (847–858 and 867–877), during which he played a critical role in defending Orthodox doctrine and mediating the Photian Schism. The last eunuch to serve as patriarch of Constantinople was Eustratios Garidas (1081–1084).
Eunuchs were also active in monastic communities, but because of their fear of homosexualty, some monastic leaders tried to exclude the “beardless” from certain monasteries, for instance on Mount Athos. On the other side, the monastery of St. Eazaros in Constantinople was reserved for eunuchs by Leo VI.
Social perception of Eunuchs in Byzantine society.
Eunuchs occupied an ambiguous position in Byzantine society. They were both admired for their loyalty and service and mocked for their physical condition, often being the subject of satire and derision in popular culture. However, their unique capabilities and close proximity to the emperor allowed them to wield considerable power, sometimes rivaling that of aristocratic families.
Showing this unusual and defamed position, Theophylaktos of Ohrid wrote a defense of the status of eunuchs, outlining that they had always played an important role in the palace, the church, and especially in the creation of ecclesiastical music. He included a list of eunuch-martyrs and named a contemporary, a certain Symeon, who organized a community of eunuch-monks.