Byzantine Women : Daughters, sisters, mothers, wives and nuns
Byzantine society was a traditional and patriarcal one, where the role of women was often seen as subordinate. This status was rooted in the legacy of Greco-Roman civilization: in ancient Greece, a woman’s sphere was the home. Similarly, in Rome, and within Roman law inherited by Byzantium, a woman’s status was clearly inferior, rendering her dependent. Christianity did not fundamentally challenge the position of women but introduced some innovations, particularly in marriage and through the establishment of female monastic communities, which provided new opportunities previously unavailable to many Greek or Roman women.
However, within this society where women often appeared to remain in the background, certain figures stood out, their impact all the more striking. Empresses with remarkable personalities such as Theodora, Irene, and Zoe made their mark. Intellectual or theological princesses like Anna Comnena and Theodora Koumnaïna also emerged. Additionally, Byzantine women were artists like Kassia, abbesses, stylites, and saints. They were also wealthy widows like Danielis, aristocrats, or common women who emerge in the chronicles for one anecdote or another. All were part of Byzantine society and contributed to shaping it, leaving a lasting mark centuries after their death.
It is important to note that the place reserved to women in the Byzantine society was not static. For instance, the Comnenian era seemed to grant women greater freedom, whereas some texts describe Byzantine women of the later centuries as being confined to their gynaeceums. The fate of women also varied according to their birth and their path. They could exert influence through their roles in the church and their involvement in charitable activities. They were active in matrimonial or diplomatic negotiations between families and dynasties. Female saints and martyrs were venerated. Widows could also own property, manage estates, and engage in business. Their influence was therefore significant, even if circumscribed by broader societal norms.
Let us delve into the lives of these millions of women who also shaped Byzantium. Daughters, sisters, mothers, wives; empresses, aristocrats, saints, or nuns, they all contributed to this fascinating civilization. Although they are often less visible in historical sources, and reconstructing their lives and histories can be challenging, their contributions remain significant.
Women and matrimonial fate.
The importance of marriage.
One of the primary roles of Byzantine women was to become wives and mothers. Their education and upbringing were geared toward this goal, even though another potential path was available to them, which may not seem appealing today but could nevertheless offer a genuine opportunity for personal fulfillment at the time: the monastery. However, the destiny of most women, whether of high or low birth, was to marry and, if possible, to bear children. The very origin of the family was marriage, transformed by Christianity, which elevated the mutual consent of both spouses to the status of a sacrament. The earliest a girl married was around the age of 12 and for boys it was 14. While Christian marriage may appear restrictive, it theoretically protected women from coercion and divorces that often resembled repudiations in ancient Greece and Rome.
Byzantine position on divorce.
However, Byzantine civil law recognized divorce by mutual consent, in contradiction to ecclesiastical legislation, which eventually prevailed in practice. An Egyptian papyrus from the 6th century presents the divorce contract between Fl. Callinicus and Aurelia Cyra, attributed to a “wicked demon,” who agree to joint custody of their son, Anastasius. But subsequently, civil law, under the influence of the Church, placed numerous obstacles to this practice. Divorce was therefore difficult to achieve, and only possible if a wife committed adultery – or if a husband was guilty of murder or witchraft. Justinian revised the law regarding the matter and went further, prohibiting it alltogether except if both parties consented to retire to a monastic life.
Betrothals.
An important innovation introduced by the Church was the legal value given to betrothals, blessed by a priest. Their unjustified breach was punished with pecuniary fines and spiritual penalties. Faced with abuses that arose, with families betrothing their children at very young ages for reasons of interest, it became necessary for civil law to intervene and prohibit betrothing a child before the age of seven. The agreement was concluded in writing; it is known that in Cyprus, the betrothed swore oaths on relics, in front of witnesses, and exchanged crosses or small reliquaries. For the lower classes of the population, where patrimonial or strategic motives did not exist, it can be doubted whether arranged marriage was the norm, even though parental authority could have its importance in this matter. Marriage itself was also regulated by law. Girls had to be at least twelve years old, boys fourteen.
Attitude and liberty towards marriage.
In practice, whether in matters of engagements or marriage, women probably did not have the final say. In fact, neither did underage boys when the union concerned aristocratic families. However, one should not necessarily assume that women were merely passive actors in what may appear as arranged marriages or even transactions. They certainly had their say as mothers and wives concerning the future of their children. Anne Dalassene, the mother of the future Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, devised a matrimonial strategy that greatly helped her son ascend to the throne. An episode even demonstrates an alliance between mother and daughter that ultimately succeeds in altering the matrimonial fate of the young Theodora Palaiologina, niece of Michael Palaiologos, at a time where he has not yet ascended to the throne. Theodore II Laskaris, the reigning Emperor, decided to marry her to a man of rather modest origin name Balaneidiotes. According to the sources, he managed to win the heart of the lady and became well acquainted with his fiancée and her family. However the emperor changed his mind and forced Theodora to marry another nobleman, Basileios Kaballarios instead. George Pachymeres reports : “those ladies (Theodora and her mother Martha) who preferred the previous union and considered it a shame to change it, despised the (new) fiancé. According to the order of the emperor, the usual rituals none-the-less took place along with a splendid wedding. In the following days the young groom did not consummate the union, a fact which he ascribed to the sorcery of his mother-in-law. Soon afterwards, however, Theodore II Laskaris died and the uncle of the unhappy bride, Michael, assumed his place. At the request of his sister, he allowed Theodora to separate from Kaballarios and marry Balaneidiotis, who on this occasion rose to the honor of grand stratopedarch.” Même si un tel heureux dénouement était peu plausible, il montre tout de même que les femmes concernées ne se privaient pas nécessairement d’intervenir, parfois indirectement, quand elles en avaient la possibilité.
Sometimes, they may have even rebelled, which seems to be implied between the lines of the Life of Matrona of Chios, a 14th-century saint.. This hagiography describes its young heroin’s early yearning to become a bride of Christ: (…) when the time came for her parents to give her in marriage she refused wishing instead to maintain her virginity and purity in order to become a beautiful and blameless bride of the im- mortal bridegroom Christ (…). She secretly left her family, forsaking her father, mother and sis- ters and came to the hills called Katabasis where she opened a stadium of ascetic fights (…). Her parents not knowing what had happened and where she was were overcome with grief and did not cease to search for her until they found her.When they discovered her whereabouts, they did not deem it right to leave her there alone but persuaded her to return to their house. A servant of God, she obeyed the blessed order of her parents and returned home.
Reading between the lines, one – as Petra Melichar does – might be tempted to see in the young woman’s flight less the urgent call of God than the desire to escape an unwanted marriage. The heroine’s return home, perhaps weary of her adventure – which was not without danger – can also be explained by her parents’ abandonment of this marriage plan that was against their child’s wishes. However, it is certain that most women did not have many other options than to submit to their family’s wishes.
Remariage.
After a woman had become a widow, remarriage was possible as long as a suitable period of mourning was observed. However, a third marriage was disapproved by the Church. Therefore, it was rare and only permitted under special circumstances which included being without children.
Bearing children… or not.
Contraception and Abortion.
Some Byzantines practiced contraception and abortion, primarily to avoid illegitimate conception. Church authorities condemned these practices. The Penitential ascribed to John IV Nesteutes categorized birth control methods based on severity: applying an ointment was considered the least heinous; drinking a potion was worse; and using herbs to induce abortion was the most serious. Another text required individuals to confess if they desired to remain childless or used contraceptive herbs.
John Chrysostom condemned contraception as “a murder before birth,” criticizing not only its interference with procreation but also its association with magic and idolatry. Contraceptive practices were often limited to prostitutes or women attempting to break vows of chastity or marital fidelity. Married couples, however, sometimes abstained from intercourse or restricted sexual activity after producing one or two children.
Epiphanios of Cyprus described heretical Gnostics who rejected childbirth and used coitus interruptus or abortion for pleasure. His accounts claim that they consumed ground embryos mixed with honey, pepper, and spices during their gatherings—a claim clearly exaggerated to emphasize moral outrage.
Byzantine medical writers, including Paul of Aegina in the 7th century, transmitted earlier Greek theories of contraception. The 2nd-century Gynaikeia of Soranos recommended vaginal wool suppositories and applying olive oil, honey, cedar resin, or other substances to block sperm. Paul included one recipe for herbal contraception, while Dioscorides had documented 20. In the 6th century, Aetios of Amida recommended magical protections, such as wearing a cat’s liver or a lioness’s womb in an ivory tube.
Abortion faced condemnation in both imperial legislation and church canons. Justinian’s Digest incorporated early Roman laws that penalized abortion, targeting both women who underwent the procedure and those who provided abortifacients. Abortion persisted, particularly among prostitutes, as Prokopios’s Secret History notes in his account of Empress Theodora’s youth. Surgical tools for abortion, such as spikes, are preserved in Roman medical collections. Recipes for abortifacients appear in Byzantine texts, with Aetios prescribing their use only during the third month of pregnancy. Civil and canon law equated abortion with murder, regardless of the embryo’s age.
Procreation and adoption.
Procreation was the primary purpose of marriage in Byzantine society, making infertility a calamity. The birth of a child, especially a boy, was celebrated with great joy. Family size varied significantly, and a typical Byzantine household in the 14th century, on the domains of some Mount Athos monasteries, could include between one and three children. However, women could bear many more, as infant mortality was common, especially after weaning. For example, the Vita of Saint Maria the Younger notes that she lost two of her four children during infancy.
Widowhood.
However, a Byzantine widow might not have been inclined to remarry. While the father was traditionally the head of the family, a widow could inherit her husband’s property and assume that role if necessary. She could manage the estate and protect the interests of her children, if she had any. In some cases, the status of a widow was one of the freest positions available to women in Byzantine society.
Be it true or not, one striking illustration of this priviledged status is the story of the widow Danielis. She was a prominent and affluent Byzantine noblewoman from Patras, in the 9th century. She owned vast estates in the Peloponnese and managed a thriving carpet and textile industry. Not only was she succesful in her business, but she also became aquointed to the future Emperor Basil I when he visited Patras, and bestowed upon him generous gifts which facilitated his rise to power.
After Basil became Emperor, she travelled to Constantinople with a large retinue, offered him lavished gifts – including 100 eunuchs – underscoring her esteemed status in Byzantine society. Her loyalty to the throne was recognized with the honorary title of “Basileomētōr,” meaning “Mother of the Emperor.” Danielis outlived Basil I and named his son, Leo VI the Wise, as her heir. Upon her death, Leo VI emancipated 3000 of her slaves and resettled them in Southern Italy, reflecting the magnitude of her estate and the lasting impact of her legacy. Her life exemplifies the significant roles that women, particularly widows, could play in Byzantine society, wielding economic power and political influence during that era.
The role of women in transmitting inheritance.
In the aristocracy, the role of women is primarily attested in the transmission of inheritance. According to the principles of Roman law, children, including daughters, inherited equally from their parents. The key moment for inheritance was at the death of the parents, but also during the children’s marriage or rather engagement (a contract as binding as marriage, but which could be concluded much earlier, when both parents were still alive and could decide). Isogamy (i.d. marriage within the same social sphere) was the rule, and it was about protecting the woman who brought her dowry, which the husband could manage but not sell. Aristocratic women were not passive elements in these transactions, as they were not confined to the gynaeceum. They received a good education and, during the Komnenian period, seemed to enjoy considerable freedom, forming literary circles, for example. When they entered a monastery, usually a family establishment, they were not necessarily cloistered and could attend to their affairs in the city, accompanied by their servants. Remarkably, several of them successfully engaged in political intrigues. Anna Dalassene devised a matrimonial strategy that greatly contributed to the success of her son Alexios Komnenos. His eldest daughter, Anna, not only left us the Alexiad but also did not hesitate to claim power against her brother John II. Finally, the Komnenian princesses were often effective agents of influence with the foreign princes they married. The Trebizond Emperors also demonstrated a willingness to marry their sisters and daughters to neighboring rulers, including Muslim ones, for diplomatic purposes.
Sexual violence, abuse and feminicide.
While this aspect is not much documented, one can assume that the Byzantine society was not exempt from abuse and sexual violence towards the women. Wars and raids were common, from the pirats or from the Arabs, Slavs, Turks. Captivity, enslavement, rape or murder must have been the lot of many Byzantine women. Within the Empire´s borders, many women may have been exposed to force marriages, rape or marital rape or many form of abuse.
In the “Synopsis historion”, the Byzantine chronicher John Skylitzes records a rape attempt from a Varangian, member of the impiral gard, the defense of the victim and the following of the matter. “There were some Varangians dispersed in the Thrakesion theme for the winter. One of them coming across a woman of the region in the wilderness put the quality of her virtue to the test. When persuasion failed he resorted to violence, but she seized his Persian-type sword, struck him in the heart and promptly killed him. When the deed became known in the surrounding area, the Varangians held an assembly and crowned the woman, presenting her with all the possessions of her violator, whom they threw aside, unburied, according to the law concerning assassins.“
The woman appears here in a martial role, which is very uncommon for the Byzantines. However, since she successfully protected her virtue against the lust of her aggressor, she is finally praised despite this transgression.
An example of domestic violence and feminicide is described in the Vita of Saint Mary the Younger, probably written around 1025. This hagiographic story recounts the life of a woman of aristocratic Armenian descent. At around 13 or 14 years old, she marries Nikephoros, a military officer commanding a tourma in Byzie, Thrace. The marriage is troubled, as Mary is wrongly accused of infidelity and other offenses. One day, a servant intentionally distorts some of her words and reports them to Nikephoros. He becomes angry, strikes her, and physically abuses her. As she tries to escape, she falls and sustains a head injury. She dies a few days later at the age of 27, likely due to the injury, in 902.
Another Vita from the same timeframe relates the life of Thomais of Lesbos, a 10th century woman unhappily married to a man named Stephen, who is reported to have beaten her daily.
Affairs, elopment and sentiments.
Despite the role traditionally assigned to them and the piety of Christian society, Byzantine sources sometimes reveal a less rigid world than we might expect. Some love stories did happen, some affairs occurred, sentiments were involved, and sometimes, even, lovers eloped. While this must have been the exception rather than the norm, it did happen.
The romantic life of Theodora Komnena, a Byzantine princess and niece of Emperor Manuel I, attests to this. Married at age 12, in 1158, to King Baldwin of Jerusalem to secure an alliance with the Kingdom, she was already a widow at age 17, without children. Her following years must have been dull. A foreigner in a Frankish kingdom, she possessed Acre, the largest city in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, as her dowry. This made the new king eager to keep her a widow so he could reclaim the city upon her death.
Nonetheless, she met her kinsman, Andronikos Komnenos, and started a relationship with him. When Emperor Manuel ordered Andronikos’ blinding, they eloped and wandered through the Muslim Levant and later Georgia. They had two children together and eventually moved to Anatolia, where Theodora and her children were captured and brought to Manuel. The Emperor and Andronikos reconciled, and Theodora and Andronikos were sent to govern Paphlagonia in a form of exile.
Though their story was a scandal—a queen dowager of Jerusalem, niece of the Byzantine Emperor, having an affair and eloping with an adventurer!—it also shows that women could, at times, make their own risky choices. Theodora and Andronikos may have lived happily for a time, but Theodora died before 1182. In a twist of fate, Andronikos killed Emperor Manuel’s son, married his widow, Agnes of France, and became Emperor in 1183.
After meeting a brutal end, Andronikos left behind Agnes of France—who had been raised in Constantinople since she was eight years old and had been twice Empress of Byzantium. Agnes later became the lover of Theodore Branas, a Byzantine military leader. They eventually married in the summer of 1204, after the fall of Constantinople, at the urging of the new Latin Emperor, Baldwin of Constantinople. Another example of a woman living life on her own terms.
Women education.
Work in progress
Women and the Law
Work in progress
Source:
Petra Melichar, Adolescent Behavior in Byzantine Sources. Some observations on young Byzantine women pursuing their goals.