The Byzantine Empire in maps : a turbulent history.

The early byzantine history : a dream of grandeur in a changing world (395-717)

The division of the roman empire and the fall of the West.

Constantine the Great founded the city of Constantinople in AD 330. He established it as the new capital of the Roman Empire, effectively moving the center of imperial power from Rome to the strategically located site on the Bosporus Strait, which connected the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, and Europe to Asia. In 395, when the Roman Empire is formally split into Western and Eastern parts, it is nearly as vast as it has ever been. However, 80 years later, the Western Roman Empire collapses and disappears, while the Eastern Roman Empire remains largely intact.

Justinian’s reign : a dream of grandeur.

Emperor Justinian dreamt of rebuilding the borders of the Roman Empire. His vision drove him to conquer vast swathes of the former Western Roman territories, from North Africa to Italy and even parts of Spain. Yet, his grand ambitions came at a cost – the empire’s resources were stretched thin by his campaigns. By the time of Emperor Maurice in 592, the state of affairs had already deteriorated. Control over the Iberian and Italian peninsulas, as well as the Balkans, had significantly waned. The empire now faced new challenges and uncertainties.

Danger from all sides : the Avars and Sassanides.

But then came the tumultuous 7th century, bringing a storm of challenges to the Eastern Roman Empire. From the north, the Avars menaced the Balkans, the Greek peninsula, and even Thrace – the empire’s very heart. In the east, Khosrow II, the ruler of the formidable Persian Empire, unleashed war, plunging the empire into a dire struggle. A devastating conflict ensued, laying waste to the lands of Egypt, the Middle East, and much of Anatolia. The situation grew so dire that in 626, the combined forces of the Avars and the Persians laid siege to Constantinople itself. Yet, the Byzantines turned the tide. In a remarkable turnaround, Emperor Heraclius reclaimed the lost territories and even captured the Persian capital, Ctesiphon, in 627. However, victory came at a cost, and the empire was left weakened and vulnerable as a new threat loomed on the horizon – the Arabs were reaching the Byzantines borders.

The Arabs extension, a deadly threat for the Byzantines.

By the early 630s, the Arabs started to expand in Syria and the Middle-East. The decisive victory at Yarmouk in 636 propelled them to swiftly seize most of the territories reconquered from the Persians. they manage to swiftly seiyed very quickly most of the territories reconquered from the Persians. By 641, they had tightened their grip on Egypt and the Near East. Their reach extended even further by 668, when they reached the current border of Tunisia. Meanwhile, the Byzantines found themselves battling Slavic invasions from the north, losing swathes of territory including much of Thrace and Greece.

The middle byzantine period (717-1204)

The Byzantine Empire’s fight for survival.

As the Arabs solidified their grip on North Africa, their sights were set on the heart of the Byzantine Empire. Between 674 and 678, during the Umayyad Caliphate, they launched their first assault on Constantinople in a historic siege. Remarkably, the Byzantine defenders held firm and repelled the Arab forces. Yet, the Arabs persisted with a second unsuccessful attempt in 717-718. These two Byzantine victories were pivotal, securing the empire’s survival and allowing for recovery. In the ensuing decades, while the Byzantines lost control over most of the western Mediterranean islands and Italy, they reasserted dominance over the Greek peninsula and fortified their eastern borders. Internally, they grappled with the divisive issue of iconoclasm.

The Byzantine renewal with the Macedonian dynasty.

In the early 9th century, as the Arab threat waned, a new peril emerged: the rising Bulgarian Empire. Challenging Byzantine control over the Balkans, they made bold attempts to seize Constantinople in 813 and 913. Yet, each time, the Byzantines stood firm and repelled their advances. Enter the Macedonian Dynasty, reigning from 856 to 1057, which decisively quashed the Bulgarian threat under the remarkable Emperor Basil II. Through strategic prowess and military might, Basil II (976-1025) annexed Bulgarian territories, cementing Byzantine dominance over Anatolia and the Balkans and restoring the empire as a formidable power. With the defeat of external foes and the resolution of the iconoclast crisis, a newfound stability and prosperity swept across much of the empire. For the first time in years, Byzantium basked in a golden era of relative peace and prosperity.

The defeat against the Seljuks at Manzikert and its consequences.

But this era of glory was fleeting. In Italy, the Normans challenged Byzantine authority and encroached upon its territories. The last Byzantine stronghold in Italy, Bari, succumbed in 1071, marking the end of Byzantine presence on the peninsula. Meanwhile, in the east, Turkish tribes pressed upon the Empire’s borders and neighboring Christian lands. Armenian princes sought Byzantine protection, but Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes suffered a dramatic defeat and capture by the Seljuks at Manzikert in 1071. Although released shortly after, he faced deposition, blinding, and exile. The empire plunged into a decade-long state of civil war and power struggles, paving the way for the swift conquest of much of Anatolia by the Seljuks—a blow from which the empire would never fully recover. However, in 1081, Alexios I Komnenos ascended to the throne, offering a glimmer of hope amidst the turmoil.

The restauration of the Byzantine power under the Komnenian dynasty.

Led by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, the Byzantine Empire underwent significant reforms and military campaigns to bolster its defenses and reclaim lost territories in Anatolia. As a response to Manzikert and the Seljuks control over the Holy Land, the First Crusade was launched in 1098. It provided opportunities for Byzantine territorial expansion, but Alexios and his successors had to navigate complex diplomatic and military landscapes while misunderstanding often prevailed between the Byzantines and the Crusaders. However, the Komnenian era witnessed a cultural and military resurgence and the Empire still hold a position as a major political and cultural force. The reign of Manuel II Komnenos (1143-1180) sees diplomatic alliances with the West and ambitious military expeditions. However, the dream of seizing Egypt remains attainable, and the Empire suffers a crushing defeat against the Seljuks at Myriokephalon in 1176, undermining any further expansion in Anatolia. After Manuel’s death in 1180, the Empire experienced political instability and the Komnenos dynasty lost power in 1085.

Power struggles of the late 11th Century and the Fourth Crusade.

Between 1185 and 1204, the Byzantine Empire was embroiled in a tumultuous period marked by internal strife, palace coups, and external interference. Rival factions vied for control of the imperial throne, resulting in instability and a weakening of central authority. These tensions created opportunities for foreign powers to intervene in Byzantine affairs. In 1203, the Fourth Crusade was diverted to support a Byzantine claimant to the imperial throne, leading to the eventual sack and capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204. This catastrophic event fractured the Byzantine Empire into several smaller states, including the Latin Empire ruling over Constantinople, the Empire of Thessalonica, the Duchy of Athens, and the Principality of Achaea. Additionally, Venice seized numerous territories, such as Crete and other islands. Amidst this fragmentation, the Byzantine Empire splintered into several entities, including the Empire of Nicaea under the Laskaris dynasty, the Empire of Trebizond led by descendants of the Komnenos dynasty, and the Despotate of Epirus. By the 1230s, both the Despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Nicaea had solidified their powers against weak western states, and were competing for the Byzantine legitimacy.

The middle byzantine period (717-1204)

The rise of the Palaiologos and the restauration of the Byzantine Empire.

Engulfed in conflicts with Nicaea and the Bulgarians, the Despotate of Epirus remained unstable. In 1259, the Laskaris dynasty was overthrown in Nicaea, and Michael VIII Palaiologos seized power. Although the Laskaris had managed to expand their territory, in 1261, by a stroke of luck, the Byzantines reclaimed Constantinople, destroying the Latin Empire and reinstating their legitimacy by regaining control of the former imperial capital.

The struggles of the Byzantine Empire as a regional power.

After 1261, internal strife, economic challenges, and external threats persisted for a Byzantine Empire reduced to the status of a regional power. Despite efforts to stabilize the empire, including diplomatic alliances and military campaigns, the Palaiologos dynasty faced ongoing conflicts with the emerging Turkish tribe, the Ottomans, and the remaining Latin states. These pressures gradually eroded Byzantine territory, leading to the loss of most of Anatolia. However, the Empire managed to absorb the Despotate of Epirus in 1340.

The twilight of Byzantium.

The dire external situation exacerbated the political instability of the empire. The 14th Century was marked by a series of civil wars: a conflict between Andronikos II and his grandson Andronikos III intermittently from 1321 to 1328, followed by strife between John VI Kantakouzenos and regent Anna of Savoy from 1341 to 1347. The Palailologos-Kantakouzenos rivalry led to another civil war from 1352 to 1357. Subsequently, a revolt and usurpation by Andronikos IV Palailogos occurred between 1373 and 1379. This turmoil hastened the decline of the Byzantine Empire. Seizing the opportunity, the Ottomans crossed the Dardanelles in 1354, swiftly conquering vast tracts of Byzantine territory. In 1391, they briefly besieged Constantinople. By 1400, the Byzantines controlled only a portion of the Peloponnese, a few Aegean islands, and Constantinople itself. Turkish pressure on the Byzantine capital increased, leading to a new siege in 1422. Efforts to obtain relief from Western states largely failed. Finally, the defeat of the Hungarian Crusade at the Battle of Varna in 1444 signaled the end of Byzantine hopes for Western assistance. In 1453, Mehmet II besieged Constantinople, using artillery for the first time in the West to breach its formidable walls. On May 29, 1453, the Turks entered the city, and the last Byzantine Emperor, Konstantinos XI Palaiologos, died fighting. After 11 centuries, the Byzantine Empire came to an end.

The conquest of the last Byzantine remnants and the Byzantine legacy.

Was the Byzantine world truly over? Some Byzantine states persisted: the Morea fell to the Ottomans in 1460, and the Empire of Trebizond was conquered in 1461. The state of Theodoro, in Crimea, finally, succumbed in 1475. Nevertheless, the Byzantine legacy endured: within the Ottoman Empire, as well as within the Orthodox Church and the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Through the marriage of Sophia Palaiologina and Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, in 1472, the Russian tsar laid claim to the continuity of Byzantium and positioned Moscow as the Third Rome.